ࡱ> ` Abjbj 7n9J:J:J:J:J:J:J:^:"O"O"O8ZOLOd^:YqPP&P&P&PQQQppppppp$Wshu:pJ:0XQQ0X0XpJ:J:&P&Pqd[d[d[0XXJ:&PJ:&Ppd[0Xpd[d[2lJ:J:n&P P zP"OX4n.o$)q0Yqbn.v(Yv\nvJ:n QSld[oT$UQQQpp [XQQQYq0X0X0X0X^:^:^:"O^:^:^:"O^:^:^:J:J:J:J:J:J: Chapter 22 Human evolution LEARNING Objectives Describe the conditions on the primitive earth. [22.1, p.468] Give a sequence of events by which a protocell may have originated through chemical evolution. [22.1, pp.468469, Fig. 22.1] Explain how small organic molecules may have arisen. [22.1, pp.468469, Fig. 22.2] Explain the RNA-first and protein-first hypotheses. [22.1, p.469] List the traits of a true cell. [22.1, p.469] Explain the important aspects of biological evolution including common descent and adaptation. [25.2, p.470] Describe how the fossil evidence supports evolution. [25.2, pp.470471, Figs. 22.3, 22.4, 22.5] List the other categories and explain the evidence for the evolutionary process. [22.2, pp.472473, Table 22.1, Figs. 22.6, 22.7] Understand why intelligent design is not considered science. [22.2, pp.473474] List the three critical elements that outline the process of natural selection as developed by Darwin. [22.2, p.474, Fig. 22.8] Describe how humans are classified. [22.3, p.475, Table 22.2, Fig. 22.9] Explain how DNA data helps us understand human evolution. [22.3, p.475] Describe the characteristics of primates. [22.3, pp.476-477, Figs. 22.10, 22.11] Describe the line of descent that includes the first hominids and the early hominids. [22.4, pp.478479, Fig. 22.12] Trace the evolution (including relevant geography) of Australopithecines. [22.4, p.480, Fig. 22.13] Trace the evolution of humans from early Homo to modern humans. [22.5, pp.481485, Figs. 22.14, 22.15, 22.16, 22.17, 22.18] Contrast the multiregional continuity hypothesis with the out-of-Africa hypothesis. [22.5, pp.482484, Fig. 22.16] Explain how human races represent phenotypes of the same species and that molecular data do not support use of the term race. [22.5, p.486, Fig. 22.19] Understand and use the bold-faced and italicized terms included in this chapter. [Understanding Key Terms, p.489] Extended Lecture Outline 22.1 Origin of Life It is suspected that chemical evolution produced the first cells on earth. The Primitive Earth The sun and planets formed from aggregates of dust and debris 4.6 billion years ago. The primitive atmosphere on earth was produced by outgassing from the earths interior and contained very little free oxygen. As the earth cooled over millions of years, water vapor condensed and produced the earths oceans. Small Organic Molecules As the earth cooled, clouds of water vapor condensed and rained down on the earth, bringing with them atmospheric gases. Energy from lightning and volcanic heat triggered the gases to react, producing simple organic compounds. Macromolecules Small molecules reacted and formed larger ones, and RNA likely formed. RNA can act both as a substrate and an enzyme, which supports this RNA-first hypothesis. The protein-first hypothesis suggests that dry heat, such as on a rocky shore, caused proteins to form from amino acids. The Protocell A protocell with a lipid-protein membrane must have evolved first. Small organic molecules would have served as food for this heterotroph. The True Cell A true cell carries on protein synthesis to produce enzymes that allow DNA to replicate. If the first cell had RNA genes, it could have directed protein synthesis. A reverse transcriptase would have produced DNA in multiple copies. If the cell began with proteins, it could function as enzymes, guiding the synthesis of nucleotides, and eventually, nucleic acids. 22.2 Biological Evolution The first true cells were most likely prokaryotes. Eukaryotic cells, with nuclei, evolved later. All living things can trace their biological evolution back to the first cells. Descent from the original cell(s) explains why all living things have a common chemistry and a cellular structure. Differences among living things can be attributed to adaptation to the environment. Common Descent Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to accumulate data that supported the idea of common descent. Fossil Evidence Supports Evolution Fossils are the best evidence for evolution because they are the actual remains of species that lived on Earth at least 10,000 years ago and up to billions of years ago. When an organism dies, the hard parts are preserved as fossils. Paleontologists have spent considerable time in the field looking for fossils. The fossil record is far more complete now than it was when Darwin formulated his theory of evolution. For example, transition fossils have been found. Other Evidence Supports Evolution Many different types of evidence support the hypothesis that organisms are related through common descent. Biogeographical Evidence Biogeography is the study of the distribution of plants and animals throughout the world. Darwin noted that South America had no rabbits although the environment could have supported them. He concluded that rabbits evolved elsewhere. Anatomical Evidence Many diverse organisms show anatomical similarities, such as vertebrate forelimbs. Similar structures that were inherited from a common ancestor are called homologous structures. The unity of plan seen in all vertebrates is evident in their common stages of embryological development. Analogous structures have the same function but do not share a common ancestry. Vestigial structures are anatomical features that are fully developed in one group of organisms but that are reduced and may have no function in similar groups. Biochemical Evidence Nearly all organisms on earth use the same biochemical molecules (DNA, ATP), all use the same triplet code for amino acids, and many share similar gene sequences. The degree of relatedness between organisms is reflected in the similarity of their DNA base sequences. Intelligent Design Evolution is a scientific theory that has been supported by repeated scientific experiments and observations. Many scientists, and even religions, argue that intelligent design is faith based and not science. Natural Selection Charles Darwins theory of evolution through natural selection was based on the idea that a species becomes adapted to its environment over time. The environment selects the individuals that are best adapted. This idea contrasts with the teleological notion of Lamarck that organisms acquired characteristics throughout their life spans. Darwins ideas on natural selection are based on variations within the population, competition for limited resources, and adaptation. Natural selection accounts for the great diversity of life on earth because of its diverse environments. Natural selection has been occurring for a very long time. 22.3 Classification of Humans Biologists classify organisms based on evolutionary relationships. Organisms are named using their genus and species, a binomial system of classification. DNA Data and Human Evolution Researchers are depending more and more on DNA data to trace the history of life. DNA data is particularly useful when anatomical differences are unavailable. Humans are Primates Primates are adapted to an arboreal lifethat is, for living in trees. The prosimians include the lemurs, tarsiers, and lorises. The anthropoids include the monkeys, apes, and humans. Mobile Forelimbs and Hindlimbs Primate limbs are mobile, and the hands and feet both have five digits each. Binocular Vision In chimps, like other primates, the snout is shortened considerably, allowing the eyes to move to the front of the head. Large, Complex Brain The evolutionary trend among primates is toward a larger and more complex brain. The portion of the brain devoted to smell gets smaller, and the portions devoted to size increase in size and complexity during primate evolution. Reproduced Reproductive Rate One birth at a time is the norm in primates. Comparing Human Skeleton to the Chimpanzee Skeleton Humans, as opposed to chimpanzees, are adapted for an upright stance. 22.4 Evolution of Hominids Our evolutionary tree shows that all primates share one common ancestor and that the other types of primates diverged from the human line of descent over time. The split between the ape and human lineage may have occurred about 7 MYA. The First Hominids Hominid is a term that refers to our branch of the evolutionary tree. Any fossil placed in the hominid line of descent is closer to us than to one of the African apes. Molecular data involves genetic changes that accumulate at a fairly constant rate. Such changes can be used as a type of molecular clock. Hominid Features One of the hominid features is bipedal posture. Two other hominid features of importance are the shape of the face and brain size. Suggested Fossils Several fossils have been found that date to between 5 and 7 MYA including Sahelanthropus tchadensis, Orrorin tugenensis, Ardipithecus kadabba, and Ardipithecus ramidus. Evolution of Australopithecines The hominid line led directly to modern humans and began with the australopithecines in Africa. Both gracile and robust australopithecines may have existed simultaneously. Southern Africa Australopithecus africanus, a gracile type, and A. robustus, a more robust form are both believed to have walked upright but had apelike limbs. Eastern Africa Australopithecus afarensis, or Lucy, was small but walked upright and had a heavy jaw and smaller brain than modern humans. All human characteristics did not evolve at the same time but instead exhibited mosaic evolution. 22.5 Evolution of Humans Fossils are from the genus Homo if the brain size is 600 cc or more, if the jaws resemble those of humans, and if tool use is evident. Early Homo Homo habilis Homo habilis (handy man) made stone tools. Stone flakes were used to clean hides and remove meat from bones. Speech was likely in this group, which also probably possessed attributes of culture and cooperation. Homo erectus Homo erectus had an even larger brain and traveled extensively throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia. It probably first appeared in Africa. It was the first hominid to use fire and to make axes and cleavers. It was a good hunter. Evidence indicates the use of home bases and social interaction. Language and culture were likely. Evolution of Modern Humans The multiregional continuity hypothesis suggests that modern humans arose simultaneously in several different places. The out-of-Africa hypothesis suggests that Homo sapiens arose from H. erectus in Africa and then migrated to other areas of the world about 100,000 years ago. Neandertals The Neandertals (H. neanderthalensis) from 200,000 years ago had massive brow ridges and protruding facial features, and were, perhaps, an archaic H. sapiens. They were heavily muscled and had larger brains than modern humans. They were culturally advanced and buried their dead with flowers, indicating a possible religion. Cro-Magnons Cro-Magnons (H. sapiens), from 100,000 years ago, had a modern appearance, were accomplished hunters, and likely caused the extinction of many large mammals. They painted and sculpted, and lived in small groups. Human Variation All humans on earth today belong to one species, Homo sapiens, even though differences occur. Such phenotypic differences like skin color are most likely due to climatic differences. Differences in stature could reflect climatic temperature differences. Genetic Evidence for a Common Ancestry Molecular data do not support the notion of separate races of people. The majority of genetic various occurs within ethnic groups, not among them. Student Activities Skeleton Study 1. Obtain skeletons or pictures of skeletons for various animals listed under anatomical evidence for common descent in Figure 22.6 (birds, bats, whales, seals, horses, lizards, monkeys). Have students examine the forelimbs of each and identify the homologous bones between the different organisms. Why are the forelimbs and not the hind limbs used for this sort of study? Differentiating Between Ape and Human Fossils 2. Students often wonder how scientists discern between humanlike fossils and ape fossils. Share with your students the following list of how paleontologists and anthropologists differentiate the two. Provide pictures or examples as much as possible. Apelike featureHominid featureJaw shapeRectangular dental arcadeU-shaped dental arcadeShape of spineStraight spineS-shaped spinePostureKnuckle-walkedErect, bipedal locomotionPelvisElongatedShortSupraorbital ridgesPronouncedNot pronouncedPlane of faceProjected forwardFlat-facedTeethLarger; large caninesSmaller; small caninesDNA Data 3. Take students to the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website. Show them the search tools for searching and comparing DNA and protein sequences. Search the database for a particular sequence of interest. Compare that sequence to other entries in the database. Explain to students the vast amount of information that is available through these databases. Museum of Natural History 4. Arrange for a field trip to a museum of natural history. Allow students to explore the many exhibits dealing with evolution and the fossil record. The Field Museum in Chicago has marvelous exhibits on this topic. Allow plenty of time for students to browse through the collection at their leisure. Origin of Species 5. Place several copies of Darwins Origin of Species on reserve in the library. Many people think they know what this book says, but few have actually read it. Interestingly, human evolution is not addressed in this book. (It is in Darwins Descent of Man.) Give extra credit for students who actually read the book and write some sort of synopsis of the main points. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 1. There is a renewed push in this country to teach the Biblical-based account of creation, but in a form called intelligent-design theory. Share with your students some of the arguments of the proponents of this view and discuss with them that this is not theory in the sense of the scientific method. Ask students why they believe there is still a continued push for the teaching of Biblical based creation accounts. Discuss the religious/emotional aspects of creation versus evolution. 2. Have students read the Bioethical Focus Biocultural Evolution before coming to class. Discuss the answers to the questions at the end of the reading. Ask students to predict the future for biocultural evolution. 3. Discuss the adaptations that must have occurred for humans to have developed the characteristics they have. Start with the adaptations for upright stance listed in the book under Comparing Human Skeleton to the Chimpanzee Skeleton and expand from there. 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